Ekonomi koperasi

Konsep kooperasi

a.      Konsep Koperasi Barat koperasi adalah organisasi swasta, yang dibentuk  sukarela oleh orang-orang yang mempunyai kesamaan kepentingan, dengan maksud mengurusi kepentingan para anggotanya serta menciptakan keuntungan timbal balik anggota koperasi maupun perusahaan koperasi. Persamaan kepentingan tersebut berasal dari perorangan atau kelompok. Kepentingan bersama suatu kelompok keluarga atau kelompok kerabat dapat diarahkan untuk membentuk atau masuk menjadi anggota koperasiSecara negatif, koperasi dapat dikatakan sebagai “organisasi bagi egoisme kelompok”. Namun demikian, unsur egoistik ini diimbangi dengan unsur positif

 b.      konsep koperasi sosialis konsep koperasi sosialis menyatakan bahwa koperasi direncanakan dan dikendalikan oleh pemerintah, dan dibentuk dengan tujuan merasionalkan produksi, untuk menunjang perencanaan nasional. sebagai alat pelaksana dari perencanaan yang ditetapkan secara sentral, maka koperasi merupakan bagian dari suatu tata administrasi yang menyeluruh, berfungsi sebagai badan yang turut menentukan kebijakan publik, serta merupakan badan pengawasan dan pendidikan.

c)  konsep koperasi negara berkembang Koperasi Negara Berkembang yaitu dominasi campur tangan pemerintah dalam pembinaan dan pengembangannya. Campur tangan ini dimaksudkan karena masyarakat dengan kemampuan sumber daya manusia dan modalnya terbatas dibiarkan untuk berinisiatif sendiri membentuk koperasi, maka koperasi tidak akan pernah tumbuh dan berkembang. Sehingga, pengembangan koperasi di negara berkembang seperti di Indonesia dengan top down approach pada awal pembangunannya dapat diterima, sepanjang polanya selalu disesuaikan dengan perkembangan pembangunan di negara tersebut. Penerapan pola top down harus diubah secara bertahap menjadi bottom up approach. Hal ini dimaksudkan agar rasa memiliki terhadap koperasi oleh anggota semakin tumbuh, sehingga para anggotanya akan secara sukarela berpartisipasi aktif. Apabila hal seperti tersebut dapat dikembangkan, maka koperasi yang benar-benar mengakar dari bawah akan tercipta, tumbuh, dan berkembang.

Adanya campur tangan pemerintah Indonesia dalam pembinaan dan pengembangan koperasi di Indonesia membuatnya mirip dengan konsep sosialis. Perbedaannya adalah, tujuan koperasi dalam konsep sosialis adalah untuk merasionalkan faktor produksi dari kepemilikan pribadi ke pemilikan kolektif, sedangkan koperasi di negara berkembang seperti Indonesia, tujuannya adalah meningkatkan kondisi sosial ekonomi anggotanya.

 Latar belakang timbul nya aliran kooperasi

A. Keterkaitan Ideologi, Sistem Perekonomian dan Aliran Koperasi

I.  Ideologi

1.Liberalisme

2.Kapitalisme

3.Sistem Ekonomi Bebas Liberal

 II. Sistem Perekonomian

1.Sistem Ekonomi Bebas Liberal

2.Sistem Ekonomi Sosialis

3.Sistem Ekonomi Campuran

III.Aliran Koperasi

1.Yardstick

2.Sosialis

3.Persemakmuran (Commonwealth)

B. SEJARAH PERKEMBANGAN KOPERASI DI INDONESIA

    1895di Leuwiliang didirikan pertama kali koperasi di Indonesia (Sukoco, “Seratus Tahun Koperasi di Indonesia”). Raden Ngabei Ariawiriaatmadja, Patih Purwokerto dkk mendirikan Bank Simpan Pinjam untuk menolong teman sejawatnya para pegawai negeri pribumi melepaskan diri dari cengkeraman pelepas uang. Bank Simpan Pinjam tersebut, semacam Bank Tabungan jika dipakai istilah UU No. 14 tahun 1967 tentang Pokok-pokok Perbankan, diberi nama “De Poerwokertosche Hulp-en Spaarbank der Inlandsche Hoofden” = Bank Simpan Pinjam para ‘priyayi’ Purwokerto. Atau dalam bahasa Inggris “the Purwokerto Mutual Loan and Saving Bank for Native Civil Servants”  1920 diadakan Cooperative Commissie yang diketuai oleh Dr. JH. Boeke sebagai Adviseur voor Volks-credietwezen.  Komisi ini diberi tugas untuk menyelidiki apakah koperasi bermanfaatdi Indonesia. 12 Juli 1947, diselenggarakan kongres gerakan koperasi se Jawa yang pertama di Tasikmalaya  1960 Pemerintah mengeluarkan Peraturan Pemerintah No. 140 tentang Penyaluran Bahan Pokok dan menugaskan koperasi sebagai pelaksananya. 1961, diselenggarakan Musyawarah Nasional Koperasi I (Munaskop I) di Surabaya untuk melaksanakan prinsip Demokrasi Terpimpin dan Ekonomi Terpimpin.

 2.  Pengertian dan prinsip koperasi

 A.Menurut Mubyarto :

Gotong royong adalah kegiatan bersama untuk mencapai tujuan bersama dalam suatu prinsip koperasi

Menurut Mubyarto :

Tolong-menolong atau bantu membantu menunjukkan pada pencapaian tujuan perorangan.  Gotong royong dan tolong menolong  lebih bertujuan  sosial, bukan bertujuan ekonomi. Koperasi mempunyai tujuan ekonomi yang lebih konkrit

B. Pengertian Koperasi

Pengertian pengertian pokok tentang Koperasi :

1.    Merupakan perkumpulan orang orang termasuk badan hukum yang mempunyai      kepentingan dan tujuan yang sama.

2.    Menggabungkan diri secara sukarela menjadi anggota dan mempunyai hak dan kewajiban yang       sama sebagai pencerminan demokrasi dalam ekonomi.

3.       Kerugian dan keuntungan ditanggung dan dinikmati bersama secara adil.

4.       Pengawasan dilakukan oleh anggota.

5.       Mempunyai sifat saling tolong menolong

C.   Tujuan Koperasi

1.    memajukan kesejahteraan anggotanya pada khususnya dan pada masyarakat pada umumnya,

2.     ikut membangun tatanan perekonomian nasional, dalam rangka mewujudkan masyarakat yang maju, adil dan makmur berdasarkan Pancasila dan UUD 1945.

D. Prinsip-prinsip koperasi

Prinsip-prinsip Koperasi Indonesia sesuai UU No.25/1992

 1. Pembagian Sisa Hasil Usaha (SHU) dilakukan secara adil sebanding dengan besarnya jasa usaha masing-masing anggota (andil anggota tersebut dalam koperasi)

 2. Pemberian balas jasa yang terbatas terhadap modal : Sisa hasil usaha yang di berikan kepada anggota koperasi, tergantung dengan sisa kas yang ada di koperasi tersebut.

3. Kemandirian : Sesuai dengan pasal 33 ayat 4, koperasi memiliki sifat kemandirian di setiap anggotanya.

 4.  Pendidikan perkoprasian : Setiap anggota koperasi dan yang akan menjadi anggota harus melewati pendidikan tentang bagamana menjadi anggota koperasi atau harus paham menengenai koperasi.

 5. Kerjasama antar koperasi : Sesuai dengan pasal 33 Ayat 4 setiap usaha koperasi harus bisa menjalin kerjasama antar koperasi dalam bidang permodalan atau yang lainnya.

 6. Keanggotaan bersifat sukarela dan terbuka : Anggota – anggota yang bergabung di dalam keanggotaan koperasi tidak ada paksaan atau siapa saja boleh masuk asalkan memenuhi criteria.

 7. Pengelolaan dilakukan secara demokratis : Setiap kegiatan koperasi yang ingin dilakukan harus dengan kesepakatan bersama sebagaimana sesuai dengan azas koperasi.

3. organisasi manajemen koperasi

 A. PERANGKAT ORGANISASI KOPERASI

Perangkat Organisasi KoperasiPada Undang-Undang Nomor 25 Tahun 1992 tentang Perkoperasian disebutkan bahwa perangkat organisasi koperasi terdiri atas rapat anggota, pengurus, dan pengawas. Penjelasan tentang ketiga perangkat organisasi koperasi ini seperti berikut ini.

1. Rapat anggota

Rapat anggota merupakan perangkat yang penting dalam koperasi. Rapat anggota ialah rapat yang dihadiri oleh seluruh atau sebagian besar anggota koperasi. Rapat anggota merupakan pemegang kekuasaan tertinggi dalam koperasi. Melalui rapat anggota, seorang anggota koperasi akan menggunakan hak suaranya. Rapat anggota berwenang untuk menetapkan hal-hal berikut ini.

a. Anggaran dasar (AD).

b. Kebijaksanaan umum di bidang organisasi.

c. Pemilihan, pengangkatan, dan pemberhentian pengurus dan pengawas.

d. Rencana kerja, rencana anggaran pendapatan dan belanja koperasi, serta pengesahan laporan keuangan.

e. Pengesahan pertanggungjawaban pengurus dalam pelaksanaan tugas.

f. Pembagian sisa hasil usaha (SHU).

g. Penggabungan, peleburan, pembagian, dan pembubaran koperasi.

2. Pengurus

Pengurus dipilih oleh rapat anggota dari kalangan anggota. Pengurus adalah pemegang kuasa rapat anggota. Masa jabatan paling lama lima tahun. Berikut ini tugas pengurus koperasi.

a. Mengelola koperasi dan bidang usaha.

b. Mengajukan rencana kerja serta rencana anggaran pendapatan dan belanja koperasi.

c. Menyelenggarakan rapat anggota.

d. Mengajukan laporan pelaksanaan tugas dan laporan keuangan koperasi.

e. Memelihara buku daftar anggota, pengurus, dan pengawas.

Pengurus bertanggung jawab kepada rapat anggota atau rapat anggota luar biasa dalam mengelola usaha koperasi. Jika koperasi mengalami kerugian karena tindakan pengurus baik disengaja maupun karena kelalaiannya, pengurus harus mempertanggungjawabkan kerugian ini. Apalagi jika tindakan yang merugikan koperasi itu karena kesengajaan, pengurus dapat dituntut di pengadilan.

Adapun wewenang pengurus koperasi terdiri atas hal-hal berikut ini.

a. Mewakili koperasi di dalam dan di luar pengadilan.

b. Memutuskan penerimaan atau penolakan seseorang sebagai anggota koperasi berdasarkan anggaran dasar koperasi.

c. Melakukan tindakan untuk kepentingan dan kemanfaatan koperasi sesuai dengan tanggung jawabnya sebagai pengurus.

3. Pengawas

Pengawas koperasi adalah salah satu perangkat organisasi koperasi, dan menjadi suatu lembaga/badan struktural koperasi. Pengawas mengemban amanat anggota untuk melaksanakan pengawasan terhadap pelaksanaan kebijaksanaan dan pengelolaan koperasi. Koperasi dalam melakukan usahanya diarahkan pada bidang-bidang yang berkaitan dengan kepentingan anggota untuk mencapai kesejahteraan anggota. Lapangan usaha itu menyangkut segala bidang kehidupan ekonomi rakyat dan kepentingan orang banyak, antara lain bidang perkreditan (simpan pinjam), pertokoan, usaha produksi, dan usaha jasa. Sesuai dengan namanya sebagai pengawas koperasi, maka

tugas-tugas koperasi seperti berikut ini:

a. Melakukan pengawasan terhadap pelaksanaan kebijakan koperasi oleh pengurus.

b. Membuat laporan tertulis mengenai hasil pengawasan yang telah dilakukannya.

Supaya para pengawas koperasi dapat melaksanakan tugasnya dengan baik, mereka harus diberi wewenang yang cukup untuk mengemban tanggung jawab tersebut. Pengawas koperasi mempunyai wewenang berikut ini.

a. Meneliti catatan atau pembukuan koperasi.

b. Memperoleh segala keterangan yang diperlukan.

B. Manajemen koperasi

Tugas manajemen koperasi adalah menghimpun, mengkoordinasi dan mengembangkanpotensi tersebut menjadi kekuataan untuk meningkatkan taraf hidup anggota sendiri melalui proses “nilai tambah”. Hal itu dapat dilakukan bila sumber daya yang ada dapat dikelola secara efisien dan penuh kreatif (inovatif) serta diimbangi oleh kemampuan kepemimpinan yang tangguh. Manajemen koperasi memiliki tugas membangkit potensi dan motif yang tersedia yaitu dengan cara memahami kondisi objektif dari anggota sebagaimana layaknya manusia lainnya. Pihak manajemen dituntut untuk selalu berfikir selangkah lebih maju di dalam memberi manfaat banding pesaing, hanya dengan anggota atau calon anggota tergerak untuk memilih koperasi sebagai alternatif yang lebih rasional dalam melakukan transaksi ekonominya

a.    Rapat pengurus

b.    Pengurus

c.    Tugas pengurus

d.    Wewenang pengurus

e.    Persyaratan jadi pengurus

f.    Fungsi pengurus

g.  Rapat-rapat pengurus

Lamaran pekerjaan

Bank Tabungan Negara merupakan lembaga jasa keuangan perbankan yang pendiriannya sejak zaman pemerintahan Belanda. Perbankan yang sering di singkat BTN ini telah berstatus sebagai Badan Usaha Milik Negara, status yang sama seperti halnya pada Bank BRI dan BNI. Produk Tabungan dan Kredit yang ditawarkan Bank BTNsangat beragam, selain itu lembaga keuangan ini juga telah memiliki unit syariah yang khusus melayani nasabah menengah kebawah dan masyarakat Muslim di Indonesia pada umumnya.

PT Bank Tabungan Negara secara nyata turut membantu sistem perekonomian masyarakat Indonesia melalui kredit murah, mudah dan cepat serta service excellence. BTN kembali membuka penerimaan kerja dengan kualifikasi sebagai berikut:

Posisi Jabatan:

1. Teller
2. Customer Service
3. Junior Sekretaris

Persyaratan:

1. Orang asli indonesia
2. Pria atau Wanita
3. Single
4. Usia maksimal 25 tahun
5. Pendidikan minimal D1
6. Berpenampilan menarik

PT Bank BTN
up. Panitia Seleksi Penerimaan Karyawan Baru 2013
KC SOLO
Jln Slamet Riyadi No 282 
Solo, Pemprov Jawa Tengah 57141
Keterangan lebih lanjut lihat disini

Description: Lowongan Kerja di Bank Tabungan Negara sebagai Teller, Customer Service dan Sekretaris Terbaru Oktober 2013 Rating: 4.5 Reviewer: Situs DuakerjaItemReviewed: Lowongan Kerja di Bank Tabungan Negara sebagai Teller, Customer Service dan Sekretaris Terbaru Oktober 2013

CONJUNCTION

CONJUNCTION

A. pengertian

            

Conjunction adalah kata sambung yang dipakai untuk menghubungkan / menggabungkan kata-kata, frase atau klausa dalam sebuah kalimat. Dan kebanyakan dari conjunction ini berasal dari parts of speech yang lain, khususnya dari preposition.

Eg. Rama dan Shinta came yesterday

I have breakfast before I go to school

Here: kupu terhubung dengan shinta oleh kata and dan kalimat Igo to school terhubung dengan kalimat I have breakfast oleh kata before. Jadi and dan before adalah kata sambung (penghubung).

Types of conjunction (JENIS KATA SAMBUNG) :

1. Coordinating conjunction adalah kata sambung yang digunakan untuk menggabungkan unsure-unsur dalam kalimat yang memiliki tingkat yang setara

Berdasarkan pengertian diatas Coordinating conjunction dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 4 macam

a. Comulative conjunction adalah kelompok kata penghubung yang berfungsi memiliki arti mengumpulkan / menambah and (dan) both ... and ... (keduanya dari ... dan ...) dan juga (dan juga), serta (dan / juga / maupun), not only ... but juga (tidak hanya ... tapi juga ...) again (lagi / lagipula), furthermore (lebih-lebih), likewise (seperti itu pula), besides (disamping itu), moreover (lebih-lebih lagi), in addition (tambahan lagi)

- Ita, serta Anis, invites me to come soon

- Ita is beautiful and diligent

- Not only ita is beautiful but she is also diligent

b. Alternative conjunction yaitu kelompok kata penghubung yang mengandung pengertian alternative atau pilihan antara dua atau lebih.

Or (atau), either ... or ... (... atau), or else ... (atau juga ...), otherwise ... (kalau tidak ...), neither ... nor ... (bukan ... atau ...)

- Either that boy sinned or his parents

- Neither ita not Anis is a teacher

- You must take rest otherwise you will lose your health

Catatan:

Neither ... not ... selalu diikuti tobeatau kata kerja positif.walaupun demikian pengertian dari pola ini selalu negative.

c. Adversative conjunction yaitu kelompok kata penghubung yang mengandung arti pertentangan antara satu bagian denagn bagian yg lain.

But, however (tetapi), though, although, eventhough (meskipun), inspite of, despite (meskipun), regardless (tanpa memedulikan) yet (meskipun begitu), nevertheless (namun), sementara (sedangkan, meskipun), still (namun), whereas (padahal, sedangkan)

- He is clever man nevertheless he often makes mistakes

- Wise men love truth, whereas fools shun it

Catatan:

Although dan inspite of memiliki arti sama tapi penggunaannya berbeda. Although diikuti kalimat lengkap sedangkan inspite of tidak.

He went out although it was raining

He went out inspite of the rain

d. Illative conjunction yaitu kelompok kata penghubung yang menunjukkan pengertian sebab akibat dari suatu peristiwa atau perbuatan yang lain. Atau menunjukkan kesimpulan therefore (oleh karena itu), thus (jadi), consequently (karenanya), because of (sebab itu), as a result (sehingga), accordingly (maka, jadi), hence (karenanya, alasan itu), so (jadi), for this reason (untuk itu), regardless of (demikian), so then (maka), for (karena).

- She is very busy accordingly, she can't see you

- Father is ill, therefore, he can't come today

- It is time to go, so then let us start

e. Conjunction yang menunjukkan hubungan sebab akibat dengan tekanan pada sebab

Because, because of, since, as, for (sebab)

- It is hard to speak English because we never practice it

- Because of you, I can speak English

Catatan:

"since" diletakkan di awal kalimat sedangkan "for" ditengah kalimat

- Since it was raining heavily, he just stayed at home

- He just stayed at home for it was raining heavily

"Because" selalu diikuti kalimat lengkap, sedangkan "because of" selalu diikuti noun

- Ita can not sleep well because it is very hot

- Ita can not sleep well because of the heat

f. Conjunction yang menunjukkan hubungan sebab akibat dengan tekanan akibat

So that (sehingga), in order to (agar supaya / untuk)

- You must buy a dictionary so that you can look up word by word

g. Conjunction yang menunjukkan waktu

As, when, while, before, after, until

- She had gone when ita visited her

- I had waited for you until your mother came

h. Conjunction yang menggabungkan dua kalimat tanpa melebur menjadi Satu

However, nevertheless (meskipun begitu, meskipun demikian), on the other hand, in contrast, inspite of this (sebaliknya) besides, moreover, semilliary (disamping itu, selain itu, dengan itu)

- Ita is very tired, therefore she can't sleep well

- Anis was tired, however, she went on working for her family

2. Subordinate conjunction adalah kata sambung yang digunakan untuk menggabungkan anak kalimat (subordinate clause) dengan induk kalimat (main clause) dalam kalimat majemuk bertingkat (complex sentence). Kebanyakan dari subordinate conjunction ini berasal dari preposition, anak kalimat diawali subordinating conjunction, tidak dapat berdiri sendiri, artinya tergantung pada pokok kalimat atau induk kalimat. Sedangkan pokok kalimat dapat berdiri sendiri, artinya tidak tergantung dengan clause (sekelompok kata yang mengandung subject dan predikat) yang lain.

Cara ketergantungan (modes of dependence) berjumlah Sembilan, yaitu:

a. Keterangan tambahan (opposition) yang hanya dalam pengertian pengantar / perkenalan

Principle clause dependent clause

He made ​​a promise that he would return soon

b. Sebab atau alasan

Principle clause dependent clause

We can do nothing as he refuses

He couldn't go because he was ill

He will succed since he has studied hard

c. Akibat atau pengaruh

Principle clause dependent clause

He ran so fast that he made ​​himself tired

d. Maksud atau tujuan

Principle clause dependent clause

He shouted at the top of in order that he might be heard his voice

We eat so that we may live

He worked hard lets he should file

e. Persyaratan

Principle clause dependent clause

I will go out tomorrow if it is fine

I will come unless I hear to the Contrary

I will come provided that I am well enough

I will come provided Iam well enough

He talk as if he were drunk

We must do as we are told whether we wish it or no.

f. Pernyataan mengalah (Concession) atau contras

Principle clause dependent clause

He worked hard even though he was tire

He is an honest man though / although he is poor

He will never succed however much he may try

He is still asleep notwithstanding that he has already slept for eight hours

Catatan:

• Concessive: terutama tentang kata sambung yang menyatakan mengalah misalnya though, although, even though dan sebagainya. Though atau although dapat juga ditempatkan di posisi awal anak kalimat dan dipisahkan dengan kalimat utama menggunakan koma (,).

Although he was tired, he worked hard

Dependent principal

Though / although

He was tired he worked har

Namun lebih umum

Principal dependent

He work hard even though he was tired

He was tired but he worked hard

• Konjungsi however bila dipakai sebagai kata smbung sederajat (codinative conjunction), berdiri sendiri, dan biasanya ditempatkan pada suatu tempat di tengah kalimatnya. Akan tetapi bila ia (however) merupakan subordinative (kata sambung yang menghubungkan kalimat pokok dengan anak kalimat), ia harus diletakkan dimuka adverb atau adjective tertentu dan selalu ditempatkan pada awal kalimat.

Dependent principal

However hard you may work you will never be able to succed

• Bila as dipakai dalam pengertian konsesif (concessive) atau kontras, ia selalu didahului oleh adjective, adverb, atau participle, yang berfungsi sebagai komplemen untuk kata kerja yang mengikuti:

Dependent principal

Hot as the sun is we must go out

g. Perbandingan

• Berbandingan yang tingkatnya sama

Sifat yang sama dibandingkan:

o she is as tall as I (am) = Ia setinggi saya

o he is as clever as you = Ia sepandai Anda

sifat yang berbeda dibandingkan:

o she is a good as she is wise

sifat baiknya sama dengan sifat bijaksananya

• Yang tingkatannya tidak sama

Sifat yang sama dibandingkan

o He is more clever than I (umum)

Sifat yang berbeda dibandingkan

o The sea is deeper than the mountains are high

h. Upgrade atau cara

Principal dependent

The business will prosper according as it is judiciously managed

- The train hasn't arrived yet as far as I know

i. Waktu

Principal dependent

She call on her neighbor as the clock struck six

I will go as soon as the comes

You can sit down while I stand

I will help you as long as I live

He studied very hard before he succeded

Wait here until I return

You must study hard are you can gain your end

I will go after he leaves

She has been much stronger since she recovered from her

Management

Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.

Since organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a prerequisite to attempting to manage others.

Contents   [hide]  1 History 1.1 Theoretical scope 2 Nature of managerial work 3 Historical development 3.1 Early writing 3.2 19th century 3.3 20th century 3.4 21st century 4 Topics 4.1 Basic functions 4.2 Basic roles 4.3 Management skills 4.4 Formation of the business policy 4.4.1 Implementation of policies and strategies 4.4.2 Policies and strategies in the planning process 4.5 Levels of management 4.5.1 Top-level managers 4.5.2 Middle-level managers 4.5.3 First-level managers 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

History

The verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle, especially tools), which derives from the Latin word manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later ménagement) influenced the development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries.[1]

Some definitions of management are:

Organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives. Management is often included as a factor of production along with machines, materials and money. According to Peter Drucker (1909–2005), the basic task of a management is twofold: marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing (product innovation is a central strategic marketing issue). Peter Drucker identifies Marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood as two different branches of business administration knowledge.

Directors and managers have the power and responsibility to make decisions to manage an enterprise when given the authority by the shareholders. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's resources to achieve the policy's objectives. The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational companies. In large firms, the board of directors formulates the policy that the chief executive officer implements.[2]

Theoretical scope

At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans, meeting goals. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925)[3] considers management to consist of six functions: forecasting, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. He was one of the most influential contributors to modern concepts of management.

Another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as philosophy.[4]

Some people, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.

One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More realistically, however, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as "business schools." Some institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the more inclusive term "management."

English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation. Historically this use of the term was often contrasted with the term "Labor" referring to those being managed.

Nature of managerial work

In for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing rewarding employment opportunities for employees. In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management and governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.

In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters elect politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the United States political appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor.

Historical development

Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition) as a late modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.

Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.

Early writing

While management has been present for millennia, several writers have created a background of works that assisted in modern management theories.[5]

Some ancient military texts have been cited for lessons that civilian managers can gather. For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC, The Art of War, recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.[5]

Various ancient and medieval civilizations have produced "mirrors for princes" books, which aim to advise new monarchs on how to govern. Examples include the Indian Arthashastra by Chanakya (written around 300BC), and The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli (c. 1515).[6]

Further information: Mirrors for princes

Basic functions

Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, staffing, leading/directing, controlling/monitoring and motivation.

Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next five years, etc.) and generating plans for action.

Organizing: (Implementation)pattern of relationships among workers, making optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans.

Staffing: Job analysis, recruitment and hiring for appropriate jobs.

Leading/directing: Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.

Controlling/monitoring: Checking progress against plans.

Motivation: Motivation is also a kind of basic function of management, because without motivation, employees cannot work effectively. If motivation does not take place in an organization, then employees may not contribute to the other functions (which are usually set by top-level management).

Management skills

• Political: used to build a power base and establish connections
• Conceptual: used to analyze complex situations.
• Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate
• Diagnostic: ability to visualize most appropriate response 

Levels of management

Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and top-level managers.[citation needed] These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid. Each level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.[11]

Top-level managers

Consists of board of directors, president, vice-president, CEOs, etc. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organization. They develop goals, strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the direction of the business. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources and are accountable to the shareholders and general public.

According to Lawrence S. Kleiman, the following skills are needed at the top managerial level. [12]

Broadened understanding of how: competition, world economies, politics, and social trends effect organizational effectiveness .

Top management's role is:

Lay down the objectives and broad policies of the enterprise.

Issues necessary instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures, schedules, etc.

Prepares strategic plans and policies for the enterprise.

Appoint middle level executives, i.e., departmental managers.

Controls and coordinate activities of all departments.

Maintain contact with the outside world.

Provides guidance and direction.

Answer to shareholders for the performance of the enterprise.

Middle-level managers

Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to the top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the objectives of the top management, they define and discuss information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower level managers towards better performance. Their functions include:

Design and implement effective group and inter-group work and information systems.

Define and monitor group-level performance indicators.

Diagnose and resolve problems within and among work groups.

Design and implement reward systems that support cooperative behavior.

First-level managers

Consist of supervisors, section leads, foremen, etc. They focus on controlling and directing. They usually have the responsibility of assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring quality and quantity production, making recommendations, suggestions, and up channeling employee problems, etc. First-level managers are role models for employees that provide:

Basic supervision

Motivation

Career planning

Performance feedback

Source: wikipedia

HRD

  HRD (Human resource developmen)

Human Resources Development (HRD) as a theory is a framework for the expansion of human capital within an organization through the development of both the organization and the individual to achieve performance improvement.[1] Adam Smith states, “The capacities of individuals depended on their access to education”.[2] The same statement applies to organizations themselves, but it requires a much broader field to cover both areas.

Human Resource Development is the integrated use of training, organization, and career development efforts to improve individual, group and organizational effectiveness. HRD develops the key competencies that enable individuals in organizations to perform current and future jobs through planned learning activities. Groups within organizations use HRD to initiate and manage change. Also, HRD ensures a match between individual and organizational needs.[3]

Process, Practice and Relation to Other Fields

Notably, HRD is not only a field of study but also a profession.[6] HRD practitioners and academia focus on HRD as a process. HRD as a process occurs within organizations and encapsulates: 1) Training and Development (TD), that is, the development of human expertise for the purpose of improving performance, and 2) Organization Development (OD), that is, empowering the organization to take advantage of its human resource capital.[7] TD alone can leave an organization unable to tap into the increase in human, knowledge or talent capital. OD alone can result in an oppressed, under-realized workforce. HRD practicitioners find the interstices of win/win solutions that develop the employee and the organization in a mutually beneficial manner. HRD does not occur without the organization, so the practice of HRD within an organization is inhibited or promoted upon the platform of the organization's mission, vision and values.

Other typical HRD practices include: Executive and supervisory/management development, new employee orientation, professional skills training, technical/job training, customer service training, sales and marketing training, and health and safety training.

HRD positions in businesses, health care, non-profit, and other field include: HRD manager, vice president of organizational effectiveness, training manager or director, management development specialist, blended learning designer, training needs analyst, chief learning officer, and individual career development advisor.

As a Program of Study in Formal Education

Academic programs in Human Resource Development (HRD) are available at both the undergraduate and graduate level.

Having become available only in 1980, one of the more well-known universities offering degrees in Human Resource Development is the University of Minnesota.[8] By 2011, many universities offered Human Resource Development degrees (both graduate and undergraduate).[9]

Source : wikipedia